Research and journalism Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Examination and news coverage - Article Example Examination then again is an all the more long haul longitudinal investigation dependent on premonition with respect to future patterns or occasions over some stretch of time. This is one of the most essential contrasts that makes news coverage and exploration take on different jobs. The assortment of information is pivotal to both news coverage and exploration. As indicated by Sedlmeier et al (1989), research isn't a duplicate of record, instead of news coverage. Here, it might be seen that reporting goes about as a record of realities on which general supposition is formed and presented. However, research depends on longitudinal investigations that rely upon the cautious choice of subjects just as center gatherings upon whom examination is directed for an obvious end result. In the first place, one needs to comprehend research plan in setting of reasoning as a style of composing or communicating thoughts. This has a nexus with positivism just as interpretivism in seeing how information is assembled and utilized. Johnson et al's content (2000) begins with an investigation of intrinsic thoughts. This part of the book is an investigation of the components that lead to theory and a resulting development of point of view. This focuses to positivism. All through this part, the writers have figured out how to snare the peruser on to the possibility that theory is a component that must be utilized in watchful dosages as a greater amount of it can harm the down to earth side of things in one's brain. (Johnson et al, 2000) As a philosophical thought, this is a perfect that is consistent with composing. Recorded as a hard copy, it is basic to adhere to a specific harmony between real data and a limited quantity of theory. This clutches individuals' creative mind an d recollections. In this manner, in this piece of the book, the writers have simply depicted a style of composing that has to do with arranging thoughts and data or interpretivism. This makes way for comprehension and separating among epistemology and philosophy. Further into the book, one will discover goals that are associated with standards in the brain. The psyche is an organ that produces considerations and articulations of the equivalent. These articulations are a piece of the essential mental arrangement of the individual concerned. This quality, thusly, springs from a capacity to shape a fruitful marriage among creative mind and the general truth encompassing an individual. In this manner, these standards progress in the direction of characterizing a specific sort of composing and examination plan that can be applied by any individual for methods for proper self articulation. (Johnson et al, 2000) The second piece of the book is about Ideas, which identifies with news coverage as opposed to investigate. Reporting is where ideation is a significant stage before one starts to really put the thoughts down on pen and paper. Where does this ideation occur' It occurs during one's educational encounters. These beneficial encounters rotate around the accumulating of qualities and beliefs throughout everyday life. One's composing regularly delineates the condition of one's conviction framework. Along these lines, in depicting thoughts, Locke has figured out how to show what an individual's primer exploration recorded as a hard copy depends on. This primer examination originates based on what is inside oneself. (Locke, 2007) In this manner, undoubtedly, positivism is the methodology utilized by research, while interpretivism is the appr

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Argument Essay Topics - Why You Need to Make Them Care About Your Argument

Argument Essay Topics - Why You Need to Make Them Care About Your ArgumentIf you want to write an argument essay, then you are probably wondering what are some good argument essay topics? The great thing about argument essay topics is that you do not need to know anything about the subject. You can use any topic you wish, but be sure that it is based on facts and not just a hunch.There are many arguments out there that people use to support their point of view. These people have worked hard in order to gain their knowledge. They spent countless hours studying different fields and making a presentation of their knowledge. This is all well and good, but how can they apply what they learned to solve the problem they faced.Some people would ask them if they can solve the problem themselves, but this is only going to help them to further strengthen their argument. Their arguments may be right, but they might be doing the wrong things to prove that. They have not actually made the effort t o analyze the problem themselves and apply the information that they have gathered.To answer this question, all you need to do is make yourself the expert on the person who is trying to prove their point of view. Look at their habits and situations and try to make yourself look like a better option. Let the person see that you can solve their problem and even if they cannot solve their own problem, you will be there for them and help them when they need it.There are some great ideas that you can use to come up with good argument essay topics. One idea is to ask your friends and family who they think would be the best choice to represent them when writing an essay. They may already have an idea of who they think would be the best choice, but now you have the chance to share that same knowledge.What they said about them before, you should now use to prove your points. It will also help you to show that they know nothing about the subject. This will not make you appear arrogant or show that you are only trying to show off, but instead it will prove that you can make good arguments about anything that you choose.Some good argument essay topics can be based on the age of the person. Kids are usually hard to convince. Try to use one of their favorite activities, such as hobbies or activities they like to do, and show them that their way of thinking is not that good. You will find that most kids' opinions change their mind because of their reasoning skills.To finish, the best way to make good argument essay topics is to not be confident. Instead, make them see that you can indeed solve their problems. If you make them see that you have a grasp of the subject, they will be more willing to listen to you.

The World s Advancement Of The Beauty Industry - 2455 Words

In specifically America, the desire to be considered beautiful has taken over the lives of many individuals. The aspiration to be perfect comes from the immense pressure put on women by society. Individuals are trying to avoid the aging process by getting multiple plastic surgeries done in order to stay  ¨beautiful ¨ and  ¨young ¨. But does being beautiful mean that one has to alter the natural way they appear into something one is not? In our society today, this may perhaps prove to be valid. Everyday an ordinary person sees beautiful faces placed on billboards, magazine covers, television and the media. Even though in most cases photoshop is involved to alter one s physical looks, women, young or old, feel discouraged and form a drive to†¦show more content†¦Due to this fact, many women in Connecticut are seeking alternatives. Instead of paying a lot of money for professional surgery, they are getting the procedures done in hotel rooms and traveling out of the coun try. (Walker). However, this is very dangerous in numerous ways since it can cause major health problems. Doctors may not follow safety precautions such as reusing needles which could spread HIV, Hepatitis and other diseases. Although surgery alters one’s appearance, it can be very helpful for those who would like to transition from their original gender to the one they feel like they identify with. Samantha, who was originally a man but now a woman, shares her story of how plastic surgery helped her transition. When she was just 18 years old, she traveled from Connecticut to Colombia to get breast implants and a nose job. Afterwards, she went to Mexico where she got injections to plump her bottom. These instances where Samantha got cosmetic procedures were not safe since they were done in a different country and in unsafe places, such as hotels.(Walker). Samantha put her life into the hands of individuals whose credentials she had not verified. If by chance something took a wrong turn during the procedure, the clinic did not have any equipment to properly help her. However, the only reason Samantha chose this path instead of going to a safe hospital was because she could not afford it. Samantha states, â€Å"It’s always about saving money† but

The Cuban Missile Crisis The Day the World Became so...

How did the world become so close to full-blown nuclear war? It all started with a deep routed conflict between the United States and Soviet Union. The U.S and the Soviet Union had different views on political and economic systems. The United States believed in Democracy, which means the people have say in what the government does. While the Soviet Union believed in Communism which means the government controls everything and ultimately leads to a dictatorship. After World War II the superpowers need to talk about post war goals. July, 1945 Churchill Brittan’s (Prime Minister), Truman (the President of the United States) and Stalin (the Soviet Union’s Dictator) all met at what is known as the Potsdam Conference. Truman and Churchill are determined to preserve Democratic government. After losing 20 million men and suffering widespread destruction. Stalin wanted to punish Germany, impose Communism on his entire nation and pay reparation for war damage. He would do this b y establishing satellite nations. This meant that Germany could still be their own country, but the Soviet Union would have control over their decisions. Truman, on the other hand, believed that they should not punish Germany’s people for what Hitler had done and that Germany’s industry was critical to Europe’s recovery. Paralyzing Germany would only hurt Europe as a whole. Nearly three decades later the Potsdam Conference did nothing to bridge the divide. These two competing ideas caused tremendous conflictShow MoreRelatedNegotiations of the Cuban Missile Crisis6179 Words   |  25 Pagesin the nuclear arms race. The Soviet Union had limited range missiles that were only capable of being launched against Europe, but the United States possessed missiles that were capable of striking anywhere within the entire Soviet Union. As it is often said, when it comes to national security, leaders sometimes make irrational decisions. In an effort to restore the balance of power Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev devised the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba (14 days in October)Read MoreEssay about Woodstock, End of an Era2425 Words   |  10 Pagesthe 1960s hippie counterculture. It will explore the events of the 1960s that lead up to it, the people that made it possible and an overview of what happened during the festival. Keywords: Hippies, Woodstock, 1969, British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). . Woodstock: End of an Era The hippie counterculture that made up the population that attended the Woodstock Musical Festival of 1969 was mostly made up of that decade’s younger generation which consisted of those betweenRead MoreAncient Nuclear Weapons (Indus Valley)7132 Words   |  29 PagesPrehistoric Nuclear Warfare Contents I. The Myth of Ancient Atomic Warfare 1 II. The First Ancient Atomic Bomb Theories 4 III. The Tesla Death Ray 13 IV. Big Theories, No Evidence 16 V. What It All Means 20 Works Cited 24 ANCIENT ATOM BOMBS? ââ€"  1 I. The Myth of Ancient Atomic Warfare I N FEBRUARY 2008, GLOBAL DIGNITARIES gathered to inaugurate the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, a repository for plant life designed to withstand nuclear war so survivorsRead More JFK ASSASINATION THEORY Essay3447 Words   |  14 PagesJFK ASSASINATION THEORY November 22, 1963, was one of the darkest days in the history of the United States of America. It was a day of complete turmoil. People all over the country dropped everything that they were doing. Children were permitted to go home from school and people huddled around their televisions in shock as they watched the days events. On this day, John F. Kennedy was brutally assassinated in Dallas, Texas. John F. Kennedy was probably the most beloved and popular presidentRead MoreNational Security Outline Essay40741 Words   |  163 Pagessecurity world order 4 CHAPTER 3: Development of the International Law of Conflict Management 5 CHAPTER 4: The Use of Force in International Relations: Norms Concerning the Initiation of Coercion (JNM) 7 CHAPTER 5: Institutional Modes of Conflict Management 17 The United Nations System 17 Proposals for Strengthening Management Institutional Modes of Conduct 23 CHAPTER 6: The Laws of War and Neutrality 24 CHAPTER 7: War Crimes and Nuremberg Principle 28 CHAPTER 12: Nuclear Weapons:Read MoreChemical, Biological, Radiological, And Nuclear Weapons10512 Words   |  43 Pages CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, RADIOLOGICAL, AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS: THE NEXT FACE OF TERRORSM A Master Thesis (Draft) Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University by Brock A. Lindsey Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts July 2015 American Public University Charles Town, WV The reality that countries like North Korea, Iran, and Iraq are working on ballistic missiles. And that terrorists who fly no national flag are trying to acquire chemical and biological weapons. -George J. TenetRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesLinda Shopes, eds., Oral History and Public Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape Read MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesFruhbeis Permissions Project Manager: Shannon Barbe Manager, Cover Visual Research Permissions: Karen Sanatar Manager Central Design: Jayne Conte Cover Art: Getty Images, Inc. Cover Design: Suzanne Duda Lead Media Project Manager: Denise Vaughn Full-Service Project Management: Sharon Anderson/BookMasters, Inc. Composition: Integra Software Services Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers Cover Printer: Coral Graphics Text Font: 10/12 Weidemann-Book Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources

Classical Societies China, Athens, And Rome Essay

Classical Societies: China, Athens, and Rome: Review of Social, Economic, Political, and Cultural Situations The three areas of classical civilizations developed their cultural beliefs, lifestyles, political institutions, and social structures. However, there were significant similarities among them. Patriarchal values thrived in these civilizations. The male dominated family structure with loyalty and obedience heavily stressed in China s homes. Chinas Patriarchal society reinforced by Confucian values that emphasized obedience of the wife to husband. China’s emphasis on family ancestors. Roman empire emphasis on family was called paterfamilias. Unlike China and Rome, Greece men were separated from women in military barracks until age 30; women had relative freedom. In all three civilizations, wealth based on land ownership and slavery existed. The social structures of China, Rome, and Greece, was hierarchical the slaves were at the bottom. In China, there was a big social divide between rural and urban, with most wealth concentrated in cities. China and Greece had some slavery, but not as much as in Rome. Athens encouraged equality for free males, but women and slaves had a little freedom. Inequality increased in Rome during the empire. China had a prosperous economy based on technological and industrial development and long-distance trade. China raised taxes and confiscated the land of wealthy individuals. Iron metallurgy in China was high. Iron was used domesticallyShow MoreRelatedClassical Civilizations of Ancient Greece, Rome, and China Essay897 Words   |  4 Pagesthat have impacted the world. The civilizations of Greece, Rome, and China have done this, but what sets them apart from the others is their lasting significance and lasting impact they had on the world. For this reason, they are considered classical civilizations. To describe how Greece, Rome, and Han China are classical, there are three systems that are used; these are Economic, Social, and Political. Out of these three classical civilizations, Greece came first in history. An important inventionRead MoreThe Roman And The Punic Wars1151 Words   |  5 Pages1. Long Essay The ancient Rome Empire raises their empire by coquetting many lands by fighting and coquetting them. One on the things that made Rome special was their expansion of the territory. What was different of other empires is, when they conquer a foreign land, they let them keep their traditions and their own culture. Instead of teaching them religion and make them be a Roman, they made them swear fealty to Rome. Roma wanted to spread their territory and their trading zone. One example ofRead More Contributions of Ancient Civilizations Essay820 Words   |  4 Pageseventually formed civilizations. A civilization is a community characterized by elements such as a system of writing, a development of social classes, and cities. Early civilizations such as ancient Greece, classical Rome, Mesopotamia, and classical China have made many contributions to society that still affect people in the modern world. The inventions, progress, and contributions of the people of these ancient civilizatio ns and others have shaped the world that we all live in today. AncientRead MoreWorld History AP8768 Words   |  36 Pagesparticularly from conquered peoples, offer a strong argument that they were destructive and oppressive. 4. Do you think that the classical empires hold â€Å"lessons† for the present, or are contemporary circumstances sufficiently unique as to render the distant past irrelevant? †¢ This question can be answered successfully from several perspectives, although in order to argue that the classical empires are irrelevant a student would have to address the arguments made in the Reflections section of the text. †¢ ARead MoreThe Golden Ages : Greece, Rome, and China Essay1360 Words   |  6 PagesThe Golden Ages : Greece, Rome, and China The Golden Ages of Greece, Rome, and China were periods when certain cultures reached many achievements in certain fields. These fields could include drama, poetry, sculpture, philosophy, architecture, math or science. Their achievements in education, technology, and government have greatly influenced modern society. The artistic and literal legacies of these periods continue to instruct and inspire people today (Beck 120). In Ancient Greece, theRead MoreThe And Disease Of The Roman Empire2281 Words   |  10 Pagesinhibited by the fact that humans stayed in small groups of 10-30 people at most, giving the virus or disease severely hampered virulence. It was not till humans began gathering in larger, more permanent settlements such as the early Classical cities of Athens, Ramses, and Rome, that the issue of sanitation and disease came into effect. This has not to say that our issues with sanitation and disease prevention have stopped, rather have they been brought forward into the limelight, many nations around theRead MoreUsing Art For A Message2077 Words   |  9 Pagesthat was not German. Today, many artists mock the commercialization of the art world and society itself using â€Å"pop-art† and othrr consumer trends in their work. In Ancient Greece, philosophy and ideology shaped the views of the people living in the first democratic state. The Greeks never established a single nation; instead, they lived in city-states, and democracy began in Polis, later known as Athens. In Athens, artists strived to perfect their work and align it to the beliefs of the philosopherRead MoreQuestion and Correct Answer7042 Words   |  29 Pagesgrows up to be king | Correct Answer: |   Ã‚   Child abandoned at birth grows up to be king | | | | | ï‚ · Question 10 2 out of 2 points | | | How did the Mesopotamians view human society?Answer | | | | | Selected Answer: |   Ã‚   As part of a larger society | Correct Answer: |   Ã‚   As part of a larger society | | | | | ï‚ · Question 11 2 out of 2 points | | | What creature, part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus, would devour the unworthy deceased at the final judgment?AnswerRead MoreJ.Co Donuts Coffee5440 Words   |  22 PagesThere are No Limits to Growth by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. Introduction by Helga Zepp-LaRouche Founder of the Club of Life Dear Reader, The Club of Life was founded on Oct. 22, 1982 in Rome, Wiesbaden, and many other cities around the world, and today, a year later, is already an anti-Malthusian mass movement in which many leading politicians, scientists, trade unionists, industry representatives, teachers, jurists, and others collaborate on four continents and in over 30 countries. The idea ofRead Morehistory of philosophy5031 Words   |  21 Pagesalso 7  Footnotes 8  References 9  External links Western philosophy[edit] Western philosophy  has a long history, conventionally divided into four large eras - the Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as  Plato  and  Aristotle. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late 15th century and the  Renaissance. The Modern is a word with more varied use, which includes everything from Post-Medieval through the

Application Of Accounting Standards Provide-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Application Of Accounting Standards Provide? Answer: Introducation The accounting treatment that the management of the Pewter Ltd. is intending to provide in the preparation and presentation would not give a true and fair view of the financial position of the company. Therefore the importance of accounting standards must be looked in and compliance for the same is required to be followed by the company otherwise it would lead to preparation misleading financial statements. Following are the accounting treatments to be given by the company so as to achieve true picture of companys financial position. Accounting for Deferred Tax Assets and the Deferred Tax Liabilities is undertaken to properly recognise the current and the deferred tax in the financial statements of the company. The said accounting is the requirement of AASB 112 issued by the Australian accounting standard board and is needed to be complied by all the listed entities of Australia (Australian Government, 2012). Application of this accounting standard in the preparation and presentation of financial statements is important for the entities to follow the basic rules of accounting such as accrual concept and matching concept. Moreover, proper accounting of DTA DTL also enables a company to present a true and view of its financial position as it ensures the recognition of the corresponding tax effects of all the transactions during a particular year (Guenther, 2011). Deferred Tax Assets and Deferred Tax Liabilities are created in the financial statements to provide for the values that are the results of differences in the rules of accounting as prescribed in the accounting standards and the rules framed and followed by the tax authorities. As the taxes are required to be paid on the taxable profits calculated as per the tax laws but in the preparation of books of accounts generally accepted accounting principles are followed, there arises the differences in the tax liability under both the frameworks. These differences are primarily classified as the timing and the permanent differences. In creation of DTA DTL, only the timing differences are to be considered as permanent differences do not make any difference in book profits and the taxable profits of any following years (Serocki Callaghan, 2012). DTAs are the prepaid taxes as they represent the anticipated reduction in the taxes in subsequent periods as a result of payment of higher taxes in the current year following the tax rules (Tran, 2015). However, DTL represents anticipated increase in the tax liability in future periods as a result of lesser tax payments made under the tax rules (Branson, 2012). These differences are required to be recognised in the financial statements using the matching concept which prescribes the recognition of the expenses in that particular year in which the income is reported. To report the income in the books of accounts, use of accrual concept is necessary as it recognises income only in the year in which they are actually earned and not in the year of cash receipts for the same. The accrual concept also applies on the expenditures. If the company does not account for DTL it will result in negligence of the accrual concept as the expenses that have been actually incurred in the year are not p rovided for in the financial statements of that year (Harrington, Smith Trippeer, 2012). Non-recognition of DTA DTL will amount to negligence of matching concept as the related tax expenses of the significant transactions will remain unrecognised in the year leading to increase in tax liability in the future periods. Moreover if the tax expenses and the tax savings of the company are not recognised adequately this will mislead the readers of financial statements as they would not depict the correct picture of companys tax obligations. In the current case application of AASB 18 named as REVENUE has to be taken into account while recognising the revenues generated from the sale of products of the company by various retailers (Australian Government, 2010). As per the accounting standard issued by the Australian accounting standard board for the recognition of revenues in the books of accounts, the revenue from the sales and the services must be recognised as and when there is a no uncertainty about the collection of revenue from the operations. In case of sales of goods revenue is recognised in the books of account when it meets the certain criteria which are as follows: When the seller has transferred all the material risks and the rewards relating to the goods and title in goods is also transferred to the buyers. When the revenue from the sale is easily and reliably measurable. When there is a certainty about the inflow of the future economic benefits from the sale transactions. The cost that have been incurred or is going to be incurred in relation to the transactions of sale is identifiable certainly. If all the above mentioned conditions are fulfilled the company must recognise the revenue from its sales operations (Caylor, 2010). But if any of the condition specified above is not fulfilled the entity should not account for the revenue as it will lead to overstatement of revenues without their being actually accrued. The concept of prudence is also to be applied while recognition of revenue as it prescribes that the income must be recognised only when it is realised. In the present case the company has agreed to recognise the revenue from the sales at the start of the quarter which would not lead to acceptable accounting treatment of revenue as the criteria that are above mentioned are not fulfilled at the beginning of the relevant quarter. As at the stage where goods are merely shipped to the retailers, the risk and the rewards from the products are not transferred to the ultimate buyers (Horngren, et al., 2012). Moreover, the decision of not recording the fees separately that is being paid to the retailers for displaying the products of company in their stores just because it is the cost of business is incorrect. The fees must be charged to revenue account separately it will give the better presentation of financial statements of the company. The cost of conducting the business is a materialistic item which needs to be provided for separately in the books of accounts so as to make it clearly understandable to the users of financial statements a bout the quantum of costs incurred in generating the revenues from a particular operation. Moreover, as per the matching concept the company must recognise separately the fees paid to the retailers as the expense at the time of recognising the revenues from the sales operations so that the financial statements depicts the true picture of the sales operations of company(Deegan, 2012). Conclusion: It can be easily concluded from the above research that the compliance of Australian accounting standards while preparing the books of accounts will provide the accuracy and clarity in preparation and presentation of financial statements. Also, the true adherence to the accounting standards will enable the company to avoid the regulatory interventions from various authorities. It is highly recommended to the management of the company to consider the importance accrual and matching concept while accounting for the taxes. Therefore creation of deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities in a must for the company so as to avoid incorrect accounting treatment for tax obligations. At the same time the company must avoid recognising the revenue from sales at the stage of mere shipment as it will lead to violation of prescribed accounting standard in relation to this matter. References Australian Government, 2010. Revenue: AASB 118, available at https://www.aasb.gov.au/admin/file/content105/c9/AASB112_07-04_COMPsep11_07-12.pdf (viewed on 11th September, 2017) Australian Government, 2012. Income tax: AASB 112, available at https://www.aasb.gov.au/admin/file/content105/c9/AASB112_07-04_COMPsep11_07-12.pdf (viewed on 11th September, 2017) Branson, C.C., 2012. Reportable tax positions: A recent innovation by the ATO.Taxation in Australia,46(7), p.296. Caylor, M.L., 2010. Strategic revenue recognition to achieve earnings benchmarks.Journal of Accounting and Public Policy,29(1), pp.82-95. Deegan, C., 2012.Australian financial accounting. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. Guenther, D., 2011. What do we learn from large book-tax differences.University of Oregon, Working paper. Harrington, C., Smith, W. and Trippeer, D., 2012. Deferred tax assets and liabilities: tax benefits, obligations and corporate debt policy.Journal of Finance and Accountancy,11, p.1. Horngren, C., Harrison, W., Oliver, S., Best, P., Fraser, D. and Tan, R., 2012.Financial accounting. Pearson Higher Education AU. Serocki, J.S. and Callaghan, J.H., 2012. Increased understanding of accounting for income taxes through effective tax rate calculations and reconciliations.The Accounting Educators' Journal,21(1). Tran, A., 2015. Can taxable income be estimated from financial reports of listed companies in Australia?.Browser Download This Paper.

Stratification Theory Essay Example

Stratification Theory Paper Max Weber Socia Stratification So, while the above quotation may be a rather hackneyed phrase (to me and countless long-suffering sociology examiners, if not to you, since youre probably encountering It for the first time), it does sensitive us to a couple of major ideas (my advice here is to remember these ideas and forget about trying to sneak the quotation into your exam). That Weber addressed many of the same concerns addressed by Marx. That Weber came to substantially different conclusions to those interpreted by Marx. While this should come as no great surprise if youve been studying sociology for some time (and I would suggest that its probably a good idea to have gained some experience In handling sociological ideas and concepts before you attempt to tackle he concept of social stratification In any depth) sociologists frequently Interpret evidence In radically different ways It should alert you to the fact that there are a number of clear differences between the ideas, arguments and conclusions put forward by Weber and Marx in relation to social stratification. The task of these Notes, therefore, is to help you understand and evaluate both Weepers ideas and their relationship to Marxist ideas. Before we continue any further however, It might be useful to note that, for theoretical purposes, Ive classified Weber as a Conflict Theorist, for three good seasons: A. Firstly, because that is my interpretation of his general sociology. We will write a custom essay sample on Stratification Theory specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Stratification Theory specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Stratification Theory specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer B. Secondly, because he talks In terms of the way In which social structures condition unman Detonator. Deer recognizes ten way In wanly structural relations denotable at the level of social class, status and power affect human behavior and consciousness and his interpretation of this relationship makes him, I would suggest, rather different to Interactions sociologists. C. Although Weber puts more emphasis than most structuralism sociologists on the importance of human consciousness and subjectivity, he does not make this the coco of his research. On the contrary, like most Conflict theorists, Weber analyses the nature of human consciousness within a structural context he may have come to different conclusions to Marxist Conflict theorists, but he appears to have more in common with the latter (in terms of his central sociological concerns) than with Interactions perspectives. However, since the whole perspective question is such a significant one in relation to A-level sociology, this might be a good place to note a number of points raised by Mary Maynard (Sociological Theory) in relation to the whole idea of sociological respective A. How Social Stratification Is Defined. Unlike Marx, Weepers analysis of social stratification was not rooted in or linked to any attempt to formulate a general historical analysis of social development. While, in common with Marx, Weber argued that class stratification had a clear and important economic dimension, he believed that two other related dimensions of stratification, namely: a. Status and b. Party (or political power) needed to be included if a full analysis and understanding of the rich social variety of different forms of social stratification was to be obtained. Thus, as has been suggested above, in order to understand the relative significance of Weepers three dimensions of stratification: a. Class b. Status and c. Party we need initially to know how they are both defined and inter-related and, in order to do this we need to further understand that all three dimensions are, for Weber, rooted in the concept of power. If you are unsure about how Weber (and others) have defined and used the concept of power then it would be useful to work your way through the Notes on Concepts ere In ten Power Ana Politics section AT ten course Detour you go any Turner since the following assumes you have a basic understanding of Weepers use of the concept of power). Central to Weepers analysis of social stratification in all its forms was the idea that we need to understand two basic things: Firstly, how societies are organized in hierarchical systems of domination and subordination (in terms of both individual and collective hierarchies). Secondly, the significance of power in the determination of social relationships based upon domination and subordination. In this respect, there are two basic dimensions to the concept of power that we need to understand: a. The possession of power: According to Weber, the ability to possess power derives from the individuals ability to control various social resources. These resources can be anything and everything and might include things like: Land, Capital, Social respect, Physical strength, Intellectual knowledge, In basic terms, the definition off social resource is simply something that is both socially desirable and in some sense limited (that is, it can be possessed by some but not others). As I hope you will appreciate, this concept of social resource is both: 1 . Extremely flexible (almost anything can qualify as a social resource) and 2. Liable to vary in time (for example, at different points in the historical development of a society) and space (for example, between different societies / cultures). Activity Give examples of social resources that have varied in their significance in both time and space. For example: Time In our society in the asses, ownership of a television was a form of power since it conferred status upon owners of this social resource. Nowadays, because television ownership is not limited, no such status is given to ownership of this resource. Space In our collects, meal doctors are generally well-pal Ana nave Nell status This is not true of all societies (the old Soviet union being a good example). B. The exercising of power: The ability to exercise power takes a number of different forms, but all involve the idea that it means the ability to get your own way with others, regardless of their ability to resist you. In terms of understanding the relationship between power and social stratification, Weber theorized the various ways in which societies are organized in hierarchical systems of domination and subordination using the following major concepts: 1 . Class Power (Class): This was theorized by Weber on the basis of unequal access to material sources. For example, if I possess something that you want (or, better still from my point of view, need) then this makes me potentially more powerful than you. I am in a dominant position and you are in a subordinate position because I control access to a desired social resource. A classic illustration here is the relationship between an employer and employee. Explain this relationship on the basis of control of resources / power. 2. Social Power (Status): If you respect me or view me as your social superior, then I will potentially be able to exercise power over you (since you will respond positively to my instructions / commands). In this respect, social status is a social resource simply because I may have it while you may not 3. Political Power (Party): This form of power is related to the way in which the State is organized in modern social systems (involving the ability to make laws, for example). If you can influence this process of law creation then you will be in a potentially powerful position. Thus, by your ability to influence a decision-making process you possess power, even though you may not directly exercise that power personally. Political parties are the organizational means to possess power through the mechanism of the State and they include not Just formally organized parties, but any group that is organized to influence the way in which power is exercised legitimately through the machinery of the State. For example: Status groups (political organizations that exist to protect the social status of a particular group Walton society Tort example: I en Brattles Meal Escalation) Interest groups (political organizations that exist to advance the interests of a particular section of society by attempting to influence the way decisions are taken by government). Give some examples of: a. Status groups: b. Interest groups: What this means, therefore, is that if you are in a position to influence a decision- making process then you are in a position of power. By your ability to influence this process you possess power, even though you may not directly exercise power. Obvious examples here might be exercising power through your ability to influence: a. Political parties (for example, through donating money to them). B. The making of laws (for example, through ownership of the mass media, your influence with a party in government). In our political system, political parties are organized to possess power through the Achaeans of the State. As Ive suggested above, this involves not only formally organized political parties, but also any group that is organized to attempt to influence the way in which power is (legitimately) exercised through the agencies of the State (pressure groups, status groups, interest groups . One of the strengths of this approach to the understanding of social stratification is the fact that it identifies three separate but inter-dependent dimensions of stratification: namely class, status and power. Its important that you dont see these three dimensions of stratification as either / r categories (that is, an individual as either economically powerful (class) or socially powerful (status) or politically powerful (party)). In the real world each dimension tends to be very closely related to one another such that: People who are economically powerful tend also to have a relatively high standing in the community (status) and are able to use these two forms of power to influence the political process in some way (for example, attempting to influence the government into passing laws favorable to such people). Slung ten concept AT values, snow now we can apply tens concept to unreason TN allegations between class and status in our society. This separation between class, status and power was not unique to Weber, since if you think about it for a moment, we have seen that Marx was well aware of these three different forms of power. Like Weber, Marx viewed these dimensions of stratification as: a. Theoretically distinct and b. Empirically inter-dependent. What this means, in simple terms, is that we can define these dimensions separately for the sake of theoretical convenience / clarity, but it is impossible to separate them empirically in the real world of human social interaction. Where Marx tended to differ from Weber was in the basic emphasis he placed upon each of the three dimensions the economic dimension was, according to Marx, the most significant one, since possession of economic power invariably leads to the possession of status and political power. In this respect, we have already seen, in an earlier Study Pack, the way in which Marx related economic power to status and political power when he talked about the distinction between infrastructure and superstructure in society. To which of these areas, according to Marx, does each dimension of power belong? Weber was, of course, also aware of the problems involved in the personalization of these three concepts, since it is evident that: High class, High status and High power are most commonly found together in our society (it is unusual, for example, to find someone who is immensely wealthy without their also enjoying high social status and political power). However, where Weber differed from Marx was in the relative emphasis that he placed upon the significance of each dimension of stratification. As we have seen, class forms of stratification (your relationship to a means of production) tended, for Marx, to be most significant. The focus of Mars analysis tended to be on the system as a whole, rather than the individual problems of placement within that system. Weber, on the other hand, was more concerned to analyses the way in which social systems were stratified at the level of individuals / social groups the way in which, for example, people doing much the same sort of work could have quite different levels AT status Ana / or power. In this respect, we can see here two things: a. The importance of theoretical perspective. Both Marx and Weber were looking at the same things, using very similar incepts. However, their analysis and conclusions tended to differ mainly because they were concerned to explain different things. B. Marx and Weber were in many ways complimentary to each other, sociologically, in the sense that they both tell us useful things about the nature of social stratification. Marx tells us something about the general nature of social stratification (a kind of macro picture). Weber tells us something about the specific nature of social stratification (a kind of micro picture). In this respect, this difference is reflected in terms of their overall theoretical respective, whereby Mars conflict approach can be contrasted with Weepers conflict perspective on the basis that the former emphasized the importance of social structure (the way in which individual behavior is conditioned by the general structure of social relationships) while the latter emphasized the importance of social action (the ability of individuals to influence the nature of their social relationships in sociologically significant ways). Since Weepers conception of social action is important, it might be opportune here to digress slightly by outlining some f the major elements in Weepers approach to the understanding of the social world Social Action Theory: A Hibernia Perspective. Max Weber is a difficult sociologist to pigeon-hole in perspective terms (for reasons that will become clear in a moment), since he doesnt fit neatly into the usual Structuralism / Interactions dichotomy so beloved of sociology textbooks. However, in terms of this dichotomy, Weber is closer to the Conflict Structuralism perspective since it is clear that in much of his sociological analysis he focuses upon the way in which the structure of peoples relationships influence (but not determine) peoples behavior. The confusion over his theoretical status largely stems from the fact that Weber concerned himself with the attempt to make sense of the rational basis of the choices of behavior made by individuals in their daily lives; that is, he attempted to analyses human behavior at an individual level within the context of a clear sense of structural constraint (the choices we make about how to behave socially are clearly contralto others). A Day ten structural relationship wanly we Don Tort Ana are Tort For Weber, therefore, society is created through social interaction (it is not something hat is naturally given) and such interaction involves the conscious behavior of thinking, reflective, individuals. People, in effect, make choices about their lives, their group memberships and so forth and these are neither pre-determined nor pre- destined. As we have seen, power was a very important concept for Weber and he used it to explain the way in which societies both change and remain relatively stable and orderly. Social change, for Weber, came about in many ways: a. Purposeful social action people thinking about the nature of society and acting purposefully to develop and change the way they live. . The unintended consequences of social actions for example, wars bring about social change in ways that may not have been intended by their participants . Economic conflicts that marry both purposeful social action and unintended outcomes. In this respect, we can see that, unlike Marx, Weber emphasized the way in which social change could come about in ways that did not simply involve class conflicts (as we see when we look at his analysis of the relationship between social change and the role of religion). In this sense, therefore, power struggles occur throughout society and, while economic power is a crucial variable in this st ruggle, it is not the only one. Powerful groups other than social classes may arise within a society from time to time and the power struggle between them may involve interests that are not specifically economic. In this respect, Hibernia sociology is sometimes seen as a pluralist perspective, in the sense that societies are invariably seen to involve a variety of different groups (a plurality), each possessing (or competing for) greater or lesser forms of power. As we have already seen, such groups may be of the class, status or party variety (or, more usually, a combination of each) The basis of each group is: Class the relationship each group has to the means of economic production, in addition to a variety of factors such as technical skills and educational qualifications that affect an individuals market situation independently of the ownership / non-ownership of property. B. Status a group that is related on the basis of a parity of esteem (a group of equals), ten Oasis Tort wanly Is a groups pattern AT consumption (or Testily). C. Party a group that is organized in some way for the taking / exercising of political power. Such groups may be class based, but they may also draw their membership from a variety of social classes. On the basis of the above, social stratification represented, for Weber, the way in which the distribution of power in any society becomes institutionalized that is, starts to assume a relatively stable pattern of social behavior that exists over a long period and the economic aspect (class) was considered to be neither more nor less important in terms of stratification than the status and party dimensions. To understand why this should be so we need to look briefly at the different sociological tauter of the concepts of class, status and party. . Economic class, for Weber, was considered to be an objective sociological / political category. That is, it was a statistical category to which people could be sociologically allocated on the basis of their market situation. While people could, of course, be conscious of belonging to a particular economic class, Weber argued that this was not assured; Just because, as sociologists, we can objectively allocate people to a particular category doesnt mean that: a. People accept that they belong to that category. For example, someone who can be classified as working class on the basis of their objective market position as a road sweeper may (subjectively) believe themselves to be middle class and this will have important social consequences for their social behavior. B. People placed into the same objective category necessarily think and act in similar ways. One major problem for Marxist is the fact that class is such a central theoretical concept in their analysis. Class is more than Just a statistical category; it is the expression of a whole set of norms, values, beliefs, interests and so forth. In this respect, to (over)simplify the situation, each class in capitalist society has its own set of class interests the proletariats interests involve taking-over the means of production and holding them in common, while the interests of the bourgeoisie are basically to prevent the proletariat doing Just that. Whereas the ruling class recognize their basic class interests, a problem arises when the proletariat do not seem to recognize their class interests when, in effect, they show no overwhelming desire to overthrow the bourgeoisie. For Marxist, the robber here is how to explain why something has not happened in the way that it should be happening / should have happened. In short, based upon the assumption that the proletariat should see it to be in their interests to throw off their exploitation Day ten Doorbells, Marxist nave to explain winy ten proletariat nave not Addenda predicted and to do this they have employed a variety of concepts (false consciousness, ideological indoctrination and so forth) to try to explain the shortfall between prediction and reality. According to Weber, on the other hand, we must avoid the trap of assuming that, cause people can be objectively assigned a particular class their failure to act in ways that further their objective class interests have to be explained in terms of such concepts as false consciousness or ideological distortions introduced through a ruling class control of various agencies of colonization (education, mass media, etc. ). People may appear to act in ways that are not in their interests for a variety of reasons and we can only understand these reasons by looking at the (subjective) dimensions of status and party. The concepts of status and party add a subjective dimension to social stratification, n terms of the fact that they allow Weber to theorize an element of conscious social organization that is related to but also separate from economic class. In this respect, we can see the basis for some of the theoretical confusion that tends to surround the pigeon-holing of Weber, in the sense that his form of conflict structuralism includes reference not simply to social structures but also to the subjective consciousness of individual social actors.

Free Essays on New World

Commercialization involved changing structures of regional and national economies as well as the growing globalization of commercial networks and their increasing domination by western European organizations and states. The growth of global trade in the 16th century was part of a transformation involving increasing importance of markets and specialized production of agricultural and manufactured goods. This commercialization of economic life had significant effects on all of society. 2 EUROPEAN TRANSFORMATION. Western Europe experienced a Commercial Revolution that had a major impact during the 16th century. Growing global contacts increased demand for a variety of goods in Europe. The development of new overseas colonies in the 16th and 17th centuries provided both new products and new markets. The influx of gold and silver from the Spanish possessions in the Western Hemisphere increased the monetarization of European national economies and provided the basis for growing demand and price inflation. The development of more effective methods of managing trade and investment heightened the impact and extent of commercialization. Emerging institutions like national banks and chartered companies provided the means for expanding commercial activities. What was in effect an AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION took place by the 17th and 18th centuries. New products like potatoes and maize from the Western Hemisphere and new farming techniques and technologies transformed old peasant agriculture, providing more food for expanding cities and growing numbers of workers who were peasants displaced by new farming methods. Processed products like refined sugar and manufactured textiles became important for the general population. Agricultural developments in this way further strengthened the commercialization of societies. The INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, especially in Great Britain and France, transformed the means, methods, and concepts of production and gave i... Free Essays on New World Free Essays on New World Commercialization involved changing structures of regional and national economies as well as the growing globalization of commercial networks and their increasing domination by western European organizations and states. The growth of global trade in the 16th century was part of a transformation involving increasing importance of markets and specialized production of agricultural and manufactured goods. This commercialization of economic life had significant effects on all of society. 2 EUROPEAN TRANSFORMATION. Western Europe experienced a Commercial Revolution that had a major impact during the 16th century. Growing global contacts increased demand for a variety of goods in Europe. The development of new overseas colonies in the 16th and 17th centuries provided both new products and new markets. The influx of gold and silver from the Spanish possessions in the Western Hemisphere increased the monetarization of European national economies and provided the basis for growing demand and price inflation. The development of more effective methods of managing trade and investment heightened the impact and extent of commercialization. Emerging institutions like national banks and chartered companies provided the means for expanding commercial activities. What was in effect an AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION took place by the 17th and 18th centuries. New products like potatoes and maize from the Western Hemisphere and new farming techniques and technologies transformed old peasant agriculture, providing more food for expanding cities and growing numbers of workers who were peasants displaced by new farming methods. Processed products like refined sugar and manufactured textiles became important for the general population. Agricultural developments in this way further strengthened the commercialization of societies. The INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, especially in Great Britain and France, transformed the means, methods, and concepts of production and gave i...

Bullying in Early Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Bullying in Early Education - Essay Example ave equal strength or power to the bully† (Berthold & Hoover, 2000; Olweus, 1996; Solberg, Olweus & Enderson, 2007; Sourander, Holstela, Helenius & Piha, 2000). Aggression was clearly defined in Lee’s research on the relationship of aggression and bullying to social preference as a â€Å"behavior that is intended to harm someone either physically or psychologically (Berkowitz, 1993), manifests itself in a wide variety of acts† (Lee, 2009, 323). Despite differences in definitions, bullying still manifests an aggressively vicious behavior expressed either indirectly or directly by a repeated tormenting towards a victim with obviously less strength and power to defend oneself from his aggressor aimed to harm him or her physically or psychologically. III. The role of gender in bullying Diverse research literatures examined the role of gender in increased susceptibility in bullying. There are actually two sides to be examined: (1) does gender play a significant part in assuming the role of the aggressor? In this issue, one would like to assess and evaluate if indeed boys are the instigator of bullying. If so, what forms of bullying do they usually perform? On the other hand, does it necessarily follow that girls are always the victims of bullying? What other perspectives in bullying give credence to gender differences as relevant correlates of bullying? The study conducted by Carbone-Lopez, et.al. (2010) reveal that gender differences have significant impact on bullying and victimization. However, it was necessary to qualify the direct form of bullying versus the indirect form. The direct form involves behavior that aims to physically harm the victim through any of the following means: hitting, kicking, pushing (Carbone-Lopez, et.al, 2010, 333) and fighting, flicking,... Bullying in Early Education Parents of bullies were observed to resort to unjustifiable physical punishment instigated by mood swings and flares. Due to the fact that bullies have never learned the value of sharing or cooperation, getting along with others is not an ultimate priority. In this regard, the objective of the research is to determine if gender affects the way children respond to bullying in terms of the response or action taken against bullying and how young children, in general, deal with it. II. Differences in Definition of Bullying Bullying has been described by Marees & Petermann (2010) as â€Å"a specific for or aggressive behavior, namely the systematic humiliation, harassment and/or torment of certain children by their peers: (178). Taylor (2003), on the other hand, who studied primary school bullying and the issue of gender differences, defined bullying as â€Å"a subcategory of aggressive behavior; but a particularly vicious kind of aggressive behavior since it is directed, often repeated ly, towards a particular victim who is unable to defend himself or herself effectively†. The impact of gender on the response of children to bullying can still be further investigated to ensure that possible findings would shed light on the diversity of gender and the way they perceive bullying as either a threat to be directly addressed or ignored. There could be other reactions or responses that were not evidently investigated, or reported especially for the age group targeted for the project.

Annotated Bibiliography 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Annotated Bibiliography 3 - Assignment Example Such presentations include tests for students on their abilities to drive while texting: those who want to test their abilities have to navigate around set obstacles and answer seemingly easy questions. Penning says that even though the questions are easy, they distract teens a lot and does not allow them driving properly. Very often, both adults and teens believe that they are the only ones who can perform several tasks at a time. In reality, it is not so. About 90 percent of all collisions result from distracted driving, with the majority of cases resulting from texting while driving. The latter is more dangerous than talking on the phone or to passengers while at the wheel. As Pennings says, conversations tend to overshadow driving. Before cell phones, the problem of distraction while driving existed as drivers were talking to the passengers. Overall, when being engaged in a conversation, an average driver sees only a half of what appears in frony of him / her on the road. There is a wide range of no-texting apps for cell phones that send calls to voice mail, silence texts etc. when inside a moving vehicle; all of them can be downloaded from the Google Play or App Store. Pennings argues that these apps will not change the situation for the better because governments cannot make citizens use them. The author of the article refers to the experience of a person who is directly connected to the problem of texting while driving. Brian Pennings is an expert in his field, and his own ideas and statistical data he quotes make the source under consideration reliable and worth using in the research. In addition to this, the author of the article refers to Pennings’ ideas and discusses quite an interesting and, more importantly, innovative way of eliminating driving distractions in the form of cell phones, which is the use of apps for cell phones. This article may contribute

Barriers to Effective Communication Essay Example for Free

Barriers to Effective Communication Essay Most important amongst the ever-recurring and constant troubles in the field of police administration is that concerned with creating and sustaining a successful method of communication. Communication is the most important medium for concerning agreement between all the personnel of a department as to the police goals. It is the foundation for a regular and ongoing understanding of problems and accomplishments practiced on a continuing basis to reach their final objectives. The process of successful communications in a department starts with the leadership establishing clear guidelines how its personnel should interact with each other, whether it is by memo, emails, forms, daily briefings or training. Leadership in any organization must identify and mandate the objectives of the organization. Pfiffner (1951) stated â€Å"In all management situations, communication consists of organizational relationships and mechanics on the one hand, and the human factor on the other, in actuality both existing together. † Communication is the method of transmitting cues, mostly written and oral, in order to adjust human behavior. The communication process works in three steps, initiate, transmit, and impact. In a police department, initiate and transmit could be where the desk sergeant, issues the daily tasking that he receives from his leadership to his patrol officers beginning a shift. Impact takes place when the officers going out on patrol implement the tasking given and could be discussing the tasking amongst each other as well to gain feedback. Hearing is a passive occurrence that requires no effort. Listening, on the other hand, is a conscious choice that demands your attention and concentration† (Livestrong, 2001). The differences between hearing and listening is that when someone is speaking and you are hearing when you just hear the words coming out, not really paying attention to all of what is said. When listening, you are collecting thought on what is being said, but if you think you already know what the person is talking about, a person could just disregard the words that were just passed. There are generally four basic levels of hearing and listening, according to Toast Masters. org. You can easily fall into one or these more categories in different conversations. A non-listener is totally preoccupied with his personal thoughts and though he hears words, he doesnt listen to what is being said. Passive listeners hear the words but dont fully absorb or understand them. Listeners pay attention to the speaker, but grasp only some of the intended message. Active listeners are completely focused on the speaker and understand the meaning of the words without distortion† (Livestrong, 2011). Communications are vital in law enforcement. Police personnel have to comprehend the importance of tone of voice, pitch, and variation, the variances of hearing and listening. Facial expressions, body movements and posture are also significant for effective communications. Cultural and ethnic dynamics are essential factors of a police officer’s communication skills. The formal and informal channels of communication in criminal justice organizations are two distinct processes. Formal relations, occupation explanations, duties and processes are found in formal communication channels. These channels match the formal chains of command, and accountability recognized in organizational charts, standard operating procedures, and policy manuals. For many police departments and organizations, formal communication channels are the primary standard and rarely differentiate. Informal channels are considered a â€Å"grapevine or rumor mill† type construct. Police officers discussing an incident in the locker room can be considered informal, and if the district attorney and a defense lawyer are chatting about a case at lunch or a washroom are prime examples for informal channels of communications. In an informal channel of communication, the original words that were spoken could be altered, invalid, and misconstrued so much in a department, that the information can provide inefficiency in any organization. â€Å"Barriers to communication often arise when one party is concerned about personal or professional status. The four basic categories, or types, of obstacles to effective communication are as follows: (1) emotional barriers, (2) physical barriers, (3) semantic barriers, and (4) ineffective listening. Each of these barriers can cause either the sender or the receiver to fail to communicate effectively† (Wallace and Roberson, 2009). Emotional barriers can exist in the receiver or the sender. Individuals base their translating of information on respective occurrences and beliefs. If a person believes they will be not taken seriously or made fun of when making a idea, then they will not participate in discussions or send their message. When a police officer has a case of low esteem, it could affect their duties on the street, believing that they might not be able to make a difference, stop certain criminals, and that barrier can cost the lives of innocent people or even peers. Physical barriers are the properties of an atmosphere that can cause communications to be challenging. Examples of physical barriers include equipment that does not work properly, having one officer on patrol instead of a team of two officers patrolling together in a bad neighborhood. Semantic barriers can cause differences between individuals, when one person might say one thing, and another forms an entirely different conclusion to that was said. This form of barrier can exist in a department where communication is very poor from the leadership down to the most junior personnel. Ineffective listening will occur if law enforcement personnel fail to pay attention to what others are communicating. The subject of discussion might bore or be irrelevant to certain persons, or just be to complicate to comprehend, and that transmission will be useless. Effective communication is fundamental in any chain of command. Leadership must be able to communicate its orders and direction to subordinates in a clear, concise manner, and with a positive message, so subordinate’s can perform to the best of their ability and listen to the message that is spoken, instead of just hearing what they want to hear. For an organization to communicate effectively, a person must be able to overcome the barriers that exist, and change one’s thoughts or feelings with another coworker. Taking personal responsibility ensures their workplace operates smoothly, and can rid the barriers that may plaque the organization.

Improving the Educational System Essays -- Education Teaching Learning

Improving the Educational System ï » ¿Teachers are committed to challenging all students to succeed, whatever their abilities, interests, social and cultural background, gender, prior attainment or aspirations. As future teachers, we need to know the aspects of society, so that we can ensure that each one of our students is successful and achieves his or her potential through the education provided. In this paper, I will be using the articles from the Social Class/Race and School Finance section of the class to evaluate the effects of social stratification, cultural capital, and social reproduction, school financing, and school environment. Social stratification lies at the core of society and of the discipline of sociology. Social inequality is a fundamental aspect of virtually all social processes, and a person's position in the stratification system is the most consistent predictor of his or her behavior, attitudes, and life chances. Social stratification links almost all aspects of society together, and therefore understanding what is happening to social stratification helps us understand a wide range of other changes in society. In the article â€Å"Social Class Differences In Family-School Relationships: The Importance of Cultural Capital† by Annette Laureau, summarizes a study of family-school relations and cultural capital. The results(of the study) suggest that social class position and class culture becomes a form of cultural capital in the school setting(Laureau, 1987). The families of working class lacked money, time, individual educational attainment, value of education, and high expectation on their children where as the middle-class families had all the advantages to support their children’s achievement at school. Lareau shows the effortful evidence that parents with resources will be able help their children attain much higher aspiration. This research uses the concepts of social and cultural capital to student behavior. Social capital may take the form of information-sharing channels and networks, as well as social norms, values, and expected behaviors. High status cultural signals include the attitudes, preferences, knowledge, behaviors, possessions, and credentials that function as informal academic standards, and that are generally defined by the dominant class. Individuals who lack the required cultura... ...help to improve the education these students receive. Improving the learning environment is the first step to rebuilding our inner city schools. More importantly, programs for the students and families will improve their future. The educational systems in America have many faults, but if more people become aware, things can only improve. It is hard to make any pinpoint decisions to improve the educational system because it is such a epic problem. I believe as a future teacher, I may be able change things, and with time maybe equal education for everyone won’t be just a far away dream. Bibliography: References Kozol, J.(1991). Life on the Mississippi. In Save inequalities: Children in American’s schools. New York, NY: Harper Perennial Kozol, J.(1991) Other people’s children. In Save inequalities: Children in American’s schools. New York, NY: Harper Perennial Laureau, A(1987) Social class differences in family-school relationships: The importance of cutural capital. Sociology of education, 60, 73-85 MacLeod, J. (1995). Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and attainment in a low-income neighborhood. Boulder, CO: Westview Press Revised Edition

Feminism in the Late 20th Century

Chapter 4: A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist- Feminism in the Late 20th Century* DONNA HARAWAY History of Consciousness Program, University of California, at Santa Cruz 1. AN IRONIC DREAM OF A COMMON LANGUAGE FOR WOMEN IN THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT This chapter is an effort to build an ironic political myth faithful to feminism, socialism, and materialism. Perhaps more faithful as blasphemy is faithful, than as reverent worship and identification. Blasphemy has always seemed to require taking things very seriously.I know no better stance to adopt from within the secular-religious, evangelical traditions of United States politics, including the politics of socialist-feminism. Blasphemy protects one from the moral majority within, while still insisting on the need for community. Blas- phemy is not apostasy. Irony is about contradictions that do not resolve into larger wholes, even dialectically, about the tension of holding incompatible things together because both or all are necessary and true. Irony is about hu- mor and serious play.It is also a rhetorical strategy and a political method, one I would like to see more honoured within socialist-feminism. At the center of my ironic faith, my blasphemy, is the image of the cyborg. A cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction. Social reality is lived social relations, our most important political construction, a world-changing fiction. The international women’s movements have constructed â€Å"women’s experience†, as well as uncovered or discovered this crucial collective ob- ject.This experience is a fiction and fact of the most crucial, political kind. Liberation rests on the construction of the consciousness, the imaginative ap- prehension, of oppression, and so of possibility. The cyborg is a matter of fiction and lived experience that changes what counts as women’s experience in the late 20th century. This is a struggle over life and death, but the boundary between science fiction and social reality is an optical illusion. Contemporary science fiction is full of cyborgs—creatures simultaneously animal and machine, who populate worlds ambiguously natural and crafted.Modern medicine is also full of cyborgs, of couplings between organism and machine, each conceived as coded devices, in an intimacy and with a power that was not generated in the history of sexuality. Cyborg â€Å"sex† restores some of the lovely replicative baroque of ferns and invertebrates (such nice * Originally published as Manifesto for cyborgs: science, technology, and socialist feminism in the 1980s. Socialist Review, no. 80 (1985): 65–108. Reprinted with permission of the author. 117 J. Weiss et al. eds. ), The International Handbook of Virtual Learning Environments, 117–158. o C 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands. organic prophylactics against heterosexis m). Cyborg replication is uncou- pled from organic reproduction. Modern production seems like a dream of cyborg colonization work, a dream that makes the nightmare of Taylorism seem idyllic. And modern war is a cyborg orgy, coded by C3I, command- control-communication-intelligence, an $84 billion item in 1984s US defence budget.I am making an argument for the cyborg as a fiction mapping our so- cial and bodily reality and as an imaginative resource suggesting some very fruitful couplings. Michael Foucault’s biopolitics is a flaccid pre-monition of cyborg politics, a very open field. By the late 20th century, our time, a mythic time, we are all chimeras, theorized, and fabricated hybrids of machine and organism; in short, we are cyborgs. This cyborg is our ontology; it gives us our politics.The cyborg is a condensed image of both imagination and material reality, the two joined cen- ters structuring any possibility of historical transformation. In the traditions of â€Å"West ern† science and politics—the tradition of racist, male-dominant capitalism; the tradition of progress; the tradition of the appropriation of nature as resource for the productions of culture; the tradition of reproduction of the self from the reflections of the other— the relation between organism and machine has been a border war.The stakes in the border war have been the territories of production, reproduction, and imagination. This chapter is an argument for pleasure in the confusion of boundaries and for responsibility in their construction. It is also an effort to contribute to socialist-feminist culture and theory in a post-modernist, nonnaturalist mode and in the utopian tradi- tion of imagining a world without gender, which is perhaps a world without genesis, but maybe also a world without end. The cyborg incarnation is outside salvation history. Nor does it mark time on an oral symbiotic utopia or post- oedipal apocalypse.As Zoe Sofoulis argues in her u npublished manuscript on Jacques Lacan, Melanie Klein, and nuclear culture, Lacklein, the most terrible and perhaps the most promising monsters in cyborg worlds are embodied in non-oedipal narratives with a different logic of repression, which we need to understand for our survival. The cyborg is a creature in a post-gender world; it has no truck with bisexu- ality, preoedipal symbiosis, unalienated labor, or other seductions to organic wholeness through a final appropriation of all the powers of the parts into a higher unity.In a sense, the cyborg has no origin story in the Western sense—a â€Å"final† irony since the cyborg is also the awful apocalyptictelosof the â€Å"West’s† escalating dominations of abstract individuation, an ultimate self untied at last from all dependency, a man in space. An origin story in the â€Å"Western†, hu- manist sense depends on the myth of original unity, fullness, bliss, and terror, represented by the phallic mot her from whom all humans must separate, the task of individual development and of history, the twin potent myths inscribed most powerfully for us in psychoanalysis and Marxism.Hilary Klein (1989) has argued that both Marxism and psychoanalysis, in their concepts of labor and of individuation and gender formation, depend on the plot of original 118 unity out of which difference must be produced and enlisted in a drama of escalating domination of woman/nature. The cyborg skips the step of original unity, of identification with nature in the Western sense. This is an illegitimate promise that might lead to subversion of its teleology as star wars. The cyborg is resolutely committed to partiality, irony, intimacy, and per- versity.It is oppositional, utopian, and completely without innocence. No longer structured by the polarity of public and private, the cyborg defines a technologicalpolisbased partly on a revolution of social relations in theoikos, the household. Nature and culture ar e reworked; the one can no longer be the resource for appropriation or incorporation by the other. The relationships for forming wholes from parts, including those of polarity and hierarchical dom- ination, are at issue in the cyborg world.Unlike the hopes of Frankenstein’s monster, the cyborg does not expect its father to save it through a restoration of the garden; that is, through the fabrication of a heterosexual mate, through its completion in a finished whole, a city and cosmos. The cyborg does not dream of community on the model of the organic family, this time without the oedipal project. The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust. Perhaps that is why I want to see if cyborgs can subvert the apocalypse of returning to nuclear dust in the manic compulsion to name the Enemy.Cyborgs are not reverent; they do not remember the cosmos. They are wary of holism, but needy for connection—they seem to ha ve a natural feel for united front politics, but without the vanguard party. The main trouble with cyborgs, of course, is that they are the illegitimate offspring of militarism and patriarchal capitalism, not to mention state socialism. But illegitimate offspring are often exceedingly unfaithful to their origins. Their fathers, after all, are inessential. I want to signal three crucial boundary breakdowns that make the following politicalfictional (political-scientific) analysis possible.By the late 20th cen- tury in United States scientific culture, the boundary between human and ani- mal is thoroughly breached. The last beachheads of uniqueness have been pol- luted if not turned into amusement parks—language, tool use, social behavior, mental events, nothing really convincingly settles the separation of human and animal. And many people no longer feel the need for such a separation; indeed, many branches of feminist culture affirm the pleasure of connection of human and oth er living creatures.Movements for animal rights are not irrational de- nials of human uniqueness; they are a clear-sighted recognition of connection across the discredited breach of nature and culture. Biology and evolutionary theory over the last two centuries have simultaneously produced modern or- ganisms as objects of knowledge and reduced the line between humans and animals to a faint trace re-etched in ideological struggle or professional dis- putes between life and social science. Within this framework, teaching modern Christian creationism should be fought as a form of child abuse.Biological-determinist ideology is only one position opened up in scien- tific culture for arguing the meanings of human animality. There is much 119 room for radical political people to contest the meanings of the breached boundary. 1 The cyborg appears in myth precisely where the boundary be- tween human and animal is transgressed. Far from signaling a walling off of people from other living bein gs, cyborgs signal disturbingly and plea- surably tight coupling. Bestiality has a new status in this cycle of marriage exchange.The second leaky distinction is between animal-human (organism) and machine. Precybernetic machines could be haunted; there was always the spectre of the ghost in the machine. This dualism structured the dialogue between materialism and idealism that was settled by a dialectical progeny, called spirit or history, according to taste. But basically machines were not self- moving, self-designing, autonomous. They could not achieve man’s dream, only mock it. They were not man, an author himself, but only a caricature of that masculinist reproductive dream.To think they were otherwise was paranoid. Now we are not so sure. Late 20th-century machines have made thoroughly ambiguous the difference between natural and artificial, mind and body, self-developing and externally designed, and many other distinctions that used to apply to organisms and machines. O ur machines are disturbingly lively, and we ourselves frighteningly inert. Technological determination is only one ideological space opened up by the reconceptions of machine and organism as coded texts through which we engage in the play of writing and reading the world. â€Å"Textualization† of everything in post-structuralist, post-modernist theory has been damned by Marxists and socialist-feminists for its utopian disregard for the lived relations of domination that ground the â€Å"play† of arbitrary reading. 3 It is certainly true that post-modernist strategies, like my cyborg myth, subvert myriad organic wholes (for example, the poem, the primitive culture, the biological organ- ism). In short, the certainty of what counts as nature— a source of insight and promise of innocence—is undermined, probably fatally.The transcendent authorization of interpretation is lost, and with it the ontology grounding â€Å"Western† epistemology. But the alte rnative is not cynicism or faithlessness, that is, some version of abstract existence, like the accounts of technologi- cal determinism destroying â€Å"man† by the â€Å"machine† or â€Å"meaningful political action† by the â€Å"text†. Who cyborgs will be is a radical question; the answers are a matter of survival. Both chimpanzees and artifacts have politics, so why shouldn’t we? (de Waal, 1982; Winner, 1980).The third distinction is a subset of the second: The boundary between physical and nonphysical is very imprecise for us. Pop physics books on the consequences of quantum theory and the indeterminacy principle are a kind of popular scientific equivalent to Harlequin romances as a marker of radical change in American white heterosexuality: They get it wrong, but they are on the right subject. Modern machines are quintessentially microelectronic devices: They are everywhere and they are invisible.Modern machinery is an irreverent upstart god, mocking the Father’s ubiquity and spirituality. The 120 silicon chip is a surface for writing; it is etched in molecular scales disturbed only by atomic noise, the ultimate interference for nuclear scores. Writing, power, and technology are old partners in Western stories of the origin of civilization, but miniaturization has changed our experience of mechanism. Miniaturization has turned out to be about power; small is not so much beau- tiful as pre-eminently dangerous, as in cruise missiles.Contrast the TV sets of the 1950s or the news cameras of the 1970s with the TV wrist bands or hand-sized video cameras now advertised. Our best machines are made of sunshine; they are all light and clean because they are nothing but sig- nals, electromagnetic waves, a section of a spectrum, and these machines are eminently portable, mobile—a matter of immense human pain in Detroit and Singapore. People are nowhere near so fluid, being both material and opaque. Cyborgs are ether, q uintessence.The ubiquity and invisibility of cyborgs is precisely why these sunshine- belt machines are so deadly. They are as hard to see politically as materially. They are about consciousness— or its simulation. 4 They are floating signifiers moving in pickup trucks across Europe, blocked more effectively by the witch- weavings of the displaced and so unnatural Greenham women, who read the cyborg webs of power so very well, than by the militant labor of older mas- culinist politics, whose natural constituency needs defence jobs.Ultimately the â€Å"hardest† science is about the realm of greatest boundary confusion, the realm of pure number, pure spirit, C3I, cryptography, and the preservation of potent secrets. The new machines are so clean and light. Their engineers are sun-worshippers mediating a new scientific revolution associated with the night dream of post-industrial society. The diseases evoked by these clean machines are â€Å"no more† than the minus cule coding changes of an antigen in the immune system, â€Å"no more† than the experience of stress.The nimble fin- gers of â€Å"Oriental† women, the old fascination of little Anglo-Saxon Victorian girls with doll’s houses, women’s enforced attention to the small take on quite new dimensions in this world. There might be a cyborg Alice taking account of these new dimensions. Ironically, it might be the unnatural cyborg women making chips in Asia and spiral dancing in Santa Rita jail5 whose constructed unities will guide effective oppositional strategies. So my cyborg myth is about transgressed boundaries, potent fusions, and dangerous possibilities which progressive people might explore as one part of needed political work.One of my premises is that most American so- cialists and feminists see deepened dualisms of mind and body, animal and machine, idealism and materialism in the social practices, symbolic formula- tions, and physical artifacts associat ed with â€Å"high technology† and scientific culture. FromOne-Dimensional Man(Marcuse, 1964) toThe Death of Nature (Merchant, 1980), the analytic resources developed by progressives have in- sisted on the necessary domination of technics and recalled us to an imag- ined organic body to integrate our resistance.Another of my premises is that the need for unity of people trying to resist worldwide intensification of 121 domination has never been more acute. But a slightly perverse shift of per- spective might better enable us to contest for meanings, as well as for other forms of power and pleasure in technologically mediated societies. From one perspective, a cyborg world is about the final imposition of a grid of control on the planet, about the final abstraction embodied in a Star Wars apocalypse waged in the name of defence, about the final appropri- ation of women’s bodies in a masculinist orgy of war (Sofia, 1984).From another perspective, a cyborg world might be about lived social and bodily realities in which people are not afraid of their joint kinship with animals and machines, not afraid of permanently partial identities and contradictory stand- points. The political struggle is to see from both perspectives at once because each reveals both dominations and possibilities unimaginable from the other vantage point. Single vision produces worse illusions than double vision or many-headed monsters.Cyborg unities are monstrous and illegitimate; in our present political circumstances, we could hardly hope for more potent myths for resistance and recoupling. I like to imagine LAG, the Livermore Action Group, as a kind of cyborg society, dedicated to realistically converting the laboratories that most fiercely embody and spew out the tools of technological apocalypse, and committed to building a political form that actually manages to hold together witches, engineers, elders, perverts, Christians, mothers, and Leninists long enough to disarm th e state.Fission Impossible is the name of the affinity group in my town. (Affinity: Related not by blood but by choice, the appeal of one chemical nuclear group for another, avidity. )6 2. FRACTURED IDENTITIES It has become difficult to name one’s feminism by a single adjective—or even to insist in every circumstance upon the noun. Consciousness of exclusion through naming is acute. Identities seem contradictory, partial, and strategic. With the hard-won recognition of their social and historical constitution, gen- der, race, and class cannot provide the basis for belief in â€Å"essential† unity.There is nothing about being â€Å"female† that naturally binds women. There is not even such a state as â€Å"being† female, itself a highly complex category constructed in contested sexual scientific discourses and other social prac- tices. Gender, race, or class-consciousness is an achievement forced on us by the terrible historical experience of the co ntradictory social realities of patriarchy, colonialism, and capitalism. And who counts as â€Å"us† in my own rhetoric? Which identities are available to ground such a potent political myth called â€Å"us†, and what could motivate enlistment in this collectivity?Painful fragmentation among feminists (not to mention among women) along every possible fault line has made the concept of woman elusive, an excuse for the matrix of women’s dominations of each other. For me—and for many who share a similar historical location in white, professional middle-class, female, 122 radical, North American, mid-adult bodies—the sources of a crisis in political identity are legion. The recent history for much of the US left and US femi- nism has been a response to this kind of crisis by endless splitting and searches for a new essential unity.But there has also been a growing recognition of another response through coalition—affinity, not identity. 7 Chela Sandoval (n. d. , 1984), from a consideration of specific historical mo- ments in the formation of the new political voice called women of color, has theorized a hopeful model of political identity called â€Å"oppositional conscious- ness†, born of the skills for reading webs of power by those refused stable membership in the social categories of race, sex, or class. Women of color†, a name contested at its origins by those whom it would incorporate, as well as a historical consciousness marking systematic breakdown of all the signs of Man in â€Å"Western† traditions, constructs a kind of post-modernist identity out of otherness, difference, and specificity. This post-modernist identity is fully political, whatever might be said abut other possible post-modernisms. Sandoval’s oppositional consciousness is about contradictory locations and heterochronic calendars, not about relativisms and pluralisms.Sandoval emphasizes the lack of any essential criterion for identifying who is a woman of color. She notes that the definition of a group has been by conscious appropriation of negation. For example, a Chicana or US black woman has not been able to speak as a woman or as a black person or as a Chicano. Thus, she was at the bottom of a cascade of negative identities, left out of even the privileged oppressed authorial categories called â€Å"women and blacks†, who claimed to make the important revolutions.The category â€Å"woman† negated all non-white women; â€Å"black† negated all non-black people, as well as all black women. But there was also no â€Å"she†, no singularity, but a sea of differences among US women who have affirmed their historical identity as US women of color. This identity marks out a self-consciously constructed space that cannot affirm the capacity to act on the basis of natural identification, but only on the basis of conscious coalition, of affinity, of political kinship. Unlike the â€Å"woman† of some streams of the white women’s movement in the United States, there is no naturalization of the matrix, or at least this is what Sandoval argues is uniquely available through the power of oppositional consciousness. Sandoval’s argument has to be seen as one potent formulation for feminists out of the worldwide development of anti-colonialist discourse; that is to say, discourse dissolving the â€Å"West† and its highest product—the one who is not animal, barbarian, or woman; man, that is, the author of a cosmos called history.As orientalism is deconstructed politically and semiotically, the identities of the occident destabilize, including those of feminists. 9 Sandoval argues that â€Å"women of colour† have a chance to build an effective unity that does not replicate the imperializing, totalizing revolutionary subjects of previous Marxisms and feminisms which had not faced the consequences of the disorderly polyphony eme rging from decolonization. 123 Katie King has emphasized the limits of identification and the politi- cal/poetic mechanics of identification built into reading â€Å"the poem†, that generative core of cultural feminism.King criticizes the persistent tendency among contemporary feminists from different â€Å"moments† or â€Å"conversations† in feminist practice to taxonomize the women’s movement to make one’s own political tendencies appear to be the telos of the whole. These taxonomies tend to remake feminist history so that it appears to be an ideological strug- gle among coherent types persisting over time, especially those typical units called radical, liberal, and socialist-feminist. Literally, all other feminisms are either incorporated or marginalized, usually by building an explicit ontol- ogy and epistemology. 0 Taxonomies of feminism produce epistemologies to police deviation from official women’s experience. And of course, â€Å"w omen’s culture†, like women of color, is consciously created by mechanisms inducing affinity. The rituals of poetry, music, and certain forms of academic practice have been pre-eminent. The politics of race and culture in the US women’s movements are intimately interwoven. The common achievement of King and Sandoval is learning how to craft a poetic/political unity without relying on a logic of appropriation, incorporation, and taxonomic identification.The theoretical and practical struggle against unity-through-domination or unity-throughincorporation ironically not only undermines the justifications for patriarchy, colonialism, humanism, positivism, essentialism, scientism, and other unlamented -isms, but all claims for an organic or natural stand- point. I think that radical and socialist/Marxist-feminisms have also under- mined their/our own epistemological strategies and that this is a crucially valuable step in imagining possible unities. It remains to be s een whether all â€Å"epistemologies† as Western political people have known them fail us in the task to build effective affinities.It is important to note that the effort to construct revolutionary standpoints, epistemologies as achievements of people committed to changing the world, has been part of the process showing the limits of identification. The acid tools of post-modernist theory and the constructive tools of ontological discourse about revolutionary subjects might be seen as ironic allies in dissolving West- ern selves in the interests of survival. We are excruciatingly conscious of what it means to have a historically constituted body. But with the loss of innocence in our origin, there is no expulsion from the Garden either.Our politics lose the indulgence of guilt with the naivet ? e of innocence. But what would an- other political myth for socialist-feminism look like? What kind of politics could embrace partial, contradictory, permanently unclosed construction s of personal and collective selves and still be faithful, effective—and, ironically, socialist-feminist? I do not know of any other time in history when there was greater need for political unity to confront effectively the dominations of â€Å"race†, â€Å"gender†, â€Å"sexuality†, and â€Å"class†. I also do not know of any other time when the kind of unity we might help build could have been possible.None of â€Å"us† have 124 any longer the symbolic or material capability of dictating the shape of reality to any of â€Å"them†. Or at least â€Å"we† cannot claim innocence from practicing such dominations. White women, including socialist-feminists, discovered the non-innocence of the category â€Å"woman†. That consciousness changes the geography of all previous categories; it denatures them as heat denatures a fragile protein. Cyborg feminists have to argue that â€Å"we† do not want any more natural matrix of unity and that no construction is whole. Innocence, and the corollary insistence on victimhood as the only ground for nsight, has done enough damage. But the constructed revolutionary subject must give late 20th-century people pause as well. In the fraying of identities and in the reflexive strategies for constructing them, the possibility opens up for weaving something other than a shroud for the day after the apocalypse that so prophetically ends salvation history. Both Marxist/socialist-feminisms and radical feminisms have simultane- ously naturalized and denatured the category â€Å"woman† and consciousness of the social lives of â€Å"women†. Perhaps a schematic caricature can highlight both kinds of moves.Marxian-socialism is rooted in an analysis of wage labor which reveals class structure. The consequence of the wage relationship is systematic alienation, as the worker is dissociated from his [sic] product. Ab- straction and illusion rule in knowledge, domi nation rules in practice. Labor is the pre-eminently privileged category enabling the Marxist to overcome illusion and find that point of view which is necessary for changing the world. Labor is the humanizing activity that makes man; labor is an ontological category permitting the knowledge of a subject, and so the knowledge of subjugation and alienation.In faithful filiation, socialist-feminism is advanced by allying itself with the basic analytic strategies of Marxism. The main achievement of both Marxist- feminists and socialist-feminists was to expand the category of labor to ac- commodate what (some) women did, even when the wage relation was subor- dinated to a more comprehensive view of labor under capitalist patriarchy. In particular, women’s labor in the household and women’s activity as mothers generally (that is, reproduction in the socialist-feminist sense), entered theory on the authority of analogy to the Marxian concept of labor.The unity of women here rests on an epistemology based on the ontological structure of â€Å"labor†. Marxist/socialist-feminism does not â€Å"naturalize† unity; it is a pos- sible achievement based on a possible standpoint rooted in social relations. The essentializing move is in the ontological structure of labor or of its ana- logue, women’s activity. 11 The inheritance of Marxian-humanism, with its pre-eminently Western self, is the difficulty for me. The contribution from these formulations has been the emphasis on the daily responsibility of real women o build unities, rather than to naturalize them. Catherine MacKinnon’s (1982, 1987) version of radical feminism is itself a caricature of the appropriating, incorporating, totalizing tendencies of Western theories of identity grounding action. 12 It is factually and politically wrong to 125 assimilate all of the diverse â€Å"moments† or â€Å"conversations† in recent women’s politics named radical femin ism to MacKinnon’s version. But the teleological logic of her theory shows how an epistemology and ontology—including their negations—erase or police difference.Only one of the effects of MacKinnon’s theory is the rewriting of the history of the polymorphous field called radical feminism. The major effect is the production of a theory of experience, of women’s identity, that is a kind of apocalypse for all revolutionary standpoints. That is, the totalization built into this tale of radical feminism achieves its end—the unity of women—by enforcing the experience of and testimony to radical non-being. As for the Marxist/socialist-feminist, consciousness is an achievement, not a natural fact.And MacKinnon’s theory eliminates some of the difficulties built into humanist revolutionary subjects, but at the cost of radical reductionism. MacKinnon argues that feminism necessarily adopted a different analyti- cal strategy from Marxism, looking first not at the structure of class, but at the structure of sex/gender and its generative relationship, men’s constitution and appropriation of women sexually. Ironically, MacKinnon’s â€Å"ontology† constructs a non-subject, a non-being. Another’s desire, not the self’s labor, is the origin of â€Å"woman†.She therefore develops a theory of consciousness that enforces what can count as â€Å"women’s† experience—anything that names sexual violation, indeed, sex itself as far as â€Å"women† can be concerned. Fem- inist practice is the construction of this form of consciousness; that is, the self-knowledge of a self-who-is-not. Perversely, sexual appropriation in this feminism still has the epistemolog- ical status of labor; that is to say, the point from which an analysis able to contribute to changing the world must flow. But sexual objectification, not alienation, is the consequence of the structure of sex/ gender.In the realm of knowledge, the result of sexual objectification is illusion and abstraction. However, a woman is not simply alienated from her product, but in a deep sense does not exist as a subject, or even potential subject, since she owes her existence as a woman to sexual appropriation. To be constituted by another’s desire is not the same thing as to be alienated in the violent separation of the laborer from his product. MacKinnon’s radical theory of experience is totalizing in the extreme; it does not so much marginalize as obliterate the authority of any other women’s political speech and action.It is a totalization producing what West- ern patriarchy itself never succeeded in doing—feminists’ consciousness of the non-existence of women, except as products of men’s desire. I think MacKinnon correctly argues that no Marxian version of identity can firmly ground women’s unity. But in solving the problem of the contra dictions of any Western revolutionary subject for feminist purposes, she develops an even more authoritarian doctrine of experience. If my complaint about social- ist/Marxian standpoints is their unintended erasure of polyvocal, unassimil- able, radical difference made visible in anti-colonial discourse and practice, 126